"The Indian Ocean was not discovered by Europeans; it was entered by them — a vast world already in motion."
— Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama
Legacy of the Monsoon routes
Their deep understanding of wind patterns, astronavigation, and coastal landmarks connected Bengal, Arabia, and Southeast Asia into a single maritime network of trade and knowledge, according to GR Tibbetts 1971 book Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the coming of Portuguese.
When Europeans finally reached the Bay of Bengal in the 16th century, they found, as Sanjay Subrahmanyam notes, "a world already in motion" (The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama, 1997). The monsoon routes were not secrets waiting to be discovered but established maritime networks.
The Europeans, however, brought a new ambition. As John Darwin notes in After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire Since 1405, "empires of the sea were built not only on commerce but also on coercion".
Thus began an era in which Portuguese carracks, massive armed merchant ships that linked trade and war, and Dutch fluyts, sleek cargo ships designed for efficiency and profit, embodied the contrasting maritime philosophies of their empires.
The British East Indiamen vied for dominance within a maritime order that had already matured long before their arrival. The Bengal coast became a layered record of civilisations—Arab, Portuguese, Dutch, and British—each inscribing its ambitions upon the waves but never entirely erasing the tides of the previous age.
The Portuguese: pioneers and pirates
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to anchor in Bengal's ports during the early sixteenth century. Initially welcomed as exotic traders, they quickly changed from guests to gatekeepers. From their fortresses in Goa and Malacca, they targeted Bengal's wealthy harbours—Satgaon, Chittagong, and Hugli—seeking pepper, textiles, and prestige. Their ships carried cannons and arquebuses (early types of shoulder-fired firearms used in the 15th to 17th centuries), transforming Bengal's predominantly river-based warfare (Subrahmanyam 1993).
The Portuguese presence in Bengal involved more than just maritime exploration; it also entailed deliberate intrusion and complex entanglements. As JJA Campos carefully documents, their settlements along the Hooghly became "a curious mixture of commerce, piracy, and proselytism," reflecting both imperial zeal and the uncertainties of faith in foreign lands (History of the Portuguese in Bengal). These early footholds marked the first European shift in Bengal's coast—from a hub of diverse exchanges to a contested frontier of coercive trade.
Beyond conquest, the Portuguese became cultural mediators. Missionaries and conversos—Iberian Jews who converted to Christianity—introduced new crops such as chillies and cashews, left linguistic traces on Bangla, and built the earliest churches along the Hugli. Still, as JC van Leur described, they were merely "traders in a sea of trade" (Indonesian Trade and Society 1955), relying on Mughal tolerance and local alliances. Their maritime power, though impressive, remained fragile—an experiment balanced between force and diplomacy.
The Dutch: Merchants of monopoly
By the 17th century, Portuguese influence declined as the Dutch East India Company (VOC) asserted its dominance. With commercial discipline and administrative expertise, the VOC established factories in Chinsurah, Pipli, and Kasimbazar. Their approach was corporate, not crusading—profit through paperwork rather than pulpit (Prakash 1998).
Dutch engagement transformed Bengal's maritime economy. Silk, muslin, saltpeter, and rice flowed towards Batavia and Amsterdam, while Dutch mapmakers charted river systems and estuaries with scientific accuracy. However, as Victor Lieberman notes in Strange Parallels, Bengal's political and economic resilience limited European influence. The VOC's success depended on adaptation rather than domination—thriving through negotiation with a strong indigenous order.
The British: From traders to rulers
The British East India Company arrived later but stayed longer. It began with trade and swiftly mastered politics. By securing Calcutta in 1690 and navigating local rivalries, the Company turned commercial privileges into sovereignty. The Battle of Plassey (1757) signified this shift, transforming maritime wealth—including rivers, ports, and saltpeter—into a means of imperial control.
However, as JC Sharman reminds us, Europe's rise was not solely based on technology: they "succeeded not through superiority but through the exploitation of local rivalries and structural weaknesses" (Empires of the Weak 2019). Rivers that once empowered Bengali mariners now carried symbols of empire; the maritime became colonial.
Ibn Majid and the transmission of nautical science
Beneath the surface of European expansion lay the intellectual inheritance of Arab navigation. Aḥmad Ibn Majid, in his Kitāb al-Fawāʾid fī Uṣūl ʿIlm al-Baḥr wa-l-Qawāʿid (The Book of Useful Information on the Principles and Rules of Navigation), counselled:
"Depart not before the monsoon has shifted, for winds that are friendly today may become perilous tomorrow. Recognise the stars and coastal landmarks; heed the currents, for they dictate the voyage as surely as any captain's skill."
His treatise became a key part of Indian Ocean seamanship. Portuguese pilots—possibly including those helping Vasco da Gama—relied heavily on the knowledge of Arab and Gujarati navigators, demonstrating that European exploration was built on centuries of Islamic maritime science (Tibbetts 1971). Bengal's sailors also adopted this hydrographic knowledge, combining it with their expertise in deltaic and riverine geography.
As Robert D Kaplan later reflected, "Strategic geography, coupled with environmental understanding, shapes the course of human events" (Mediterranean Winter 2005). In Bengal's delta, that geography determined destiny.
Maritime transformations and environmental entanglements
The European arrival signalled the start of an era of technological, ecological, and cultural exchange—along with violence, exploitation, and extraction.
- Technology: Shipbuilders combined local teak with European hull designs.
- Economy: Global demand for muslin, indigo, and saltpeter connected Bengal to Amsterdam and London.
- Culture: Missionary schools and printing presses introduced new literacies and religious expressions.
- Violence: Cannon-armed vessels and fortified ports militarised trade routes.
Nevertheless, nature remained the ultimate arbiter. Cyclones, siltation, and monsoon surges often neutralised imperial ambitions. As Lawrence Freedman observes, "Strategy must always account for the environment in which it operates" (Strategy: A History, 2013). In the Bay of Bengal, that environment could be as decisive as any armada.
Lead-in to Episode Six
By the late 18th century, the Bay of Bengal had become a battleground for maritime dominance. The same winds that once carried Arab dhows and Javanese junks now propelled European frigates. However, beneath the shifting flags and cargoes, the sea remained unpredictable. Cyclones, floods, and tides could destroy the empire's plans overnight.
The next episode— "Storms and Survival: Cyclones, Floods, and Coastal Resilience"—will explore this delicate border between nature and civilisation, showing how Bengal's centuries-old seafaring knowledge has evolved into systems of adaptation and resilience that continue to shape its future.
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