Bay series: Episode Three:
Commerce, conquest, and the call of the Monsoon
"He who controls
the sea controls everything."
—Thucydides, History of
the Peloponnesian War, c. 400 BCE
From rivers to the sea
The rivers of Bengal, as seen in
the last episode, were never just waters flowing toward the Bay—they were vital
lifelines of civilisation, shaping the delta's soil, supporting communities,
and guiding the rhythm of daily life.
However, as these rivers widened
into estuaries and discharged into the Bay of Bengal, they revealed a new
reality: the sea as a stage for power, diplomacy, and enterprise. While Episode
Two emphasised rivers as connectors to the broader world, Episode Three begins
with a lesson Thucydides stated millennia ago: mastery of the sea was mastery
of fate.
This principle was recognised far
beyond Athens and Sparta. Bengal's rulers and sailors knew that authority was
incomplete without control of the waters. From the Palas and Senas to the
Cholas and Mughals, kings and seafarers created a maritime legacy whose
influence still resonates across the Bay today (Amrith 2013; van Schendel
2009).
The Palas: Inland kings with a
maritime vision
The Pala dynasty (8th–12th
centuries), known for its Buddhist monasteries and inland capitals, might seem
at first glance to be landlocked. However, archaeological evidence—such as dock
remains, pottery, and coins—and textual references show active engagement with
maritime trade (Chakrabarti 2005).
Willem van Schendel emphasises
that ports like Chittagong served as routes connecting Bengal with Burma,
Arakan, and Southeast Asia. Salt, rice, timber, and luxury goods moved through
these waters, illustrating that the Palas' maritime perspective extended beyond
practical trade: the Bay of Bengal was viewed as a pathway of opportunity. By
seeing the sea not as a boundary but as a link, the Palas laid the foundation
for centuries of Bengali maritime activity.
The Cholas: Rivals and
collaborators across the Bay
While the Palas approached the
sea cautiously, the Cholas of South India (9th–13th centuries) pursued it with
extensive ambition. Chola naval expeditions reached Sri Lanka, the Maldives,
and Southeast Asia, often visiting ports in Bengal. Inscriptions and
copper-plate grants record the arrival of Tamil merchants, who traded in
pepper, textiles, and artisans (Amrith 2013).
Sunil Amrith depicts the Bay as a
hub of mobility, where pilgrims, artisans, and sailors crossed political and
cultural borders, forming a network of exchange. The Cholas were both rivals
and allies, showing that maritime power was about connection and diplomacy as
much as dominance and control.
Barbara Metcalf highlights that
religion, culture, and technology also travelled along these maritime networks,
not just goods.
The Senas: Fragility at the
water's edge
The Sena dynasty (11th–12th
centuries) show how fragile maritime power can be. Even though they controlled
key ports and river routes, their influence was vulnerable to environmental and
political shifts. River silting, changing trade routes, and rival dynasties
could quickly undermine their authority.
JC Sharman stresses that
pre-modern empires "rarely succeed through sheer force; their survival
depends on recognising and exploiting the inherent fragility of networks,
alliances, and geographic chokepoints". The decline of the Senas under Muslim
invasions illustrates this idea: maritime and river networks, once reliable
channels of commerce and power, could be disrupted or taken over by rivals.
Bengal's history shows Sharman's point that influence often stems from adaptive
engagement rather than brute strength (Sharman 2019).
The Mughals: Bengal as the
eastern jewel
By the 16th century, Bengal had
become the crown jewel of the Mughal Empire. Satgaon, Chittagong, and Dhaka's
riverine hinterlands thrived as centres of commerce. Mughal governors managed
shipbuilding, kept rivers navigable, and taxed trade, ensuring the "king
and sailor" dynamic reached its peak.
Richard M Eaton emphasises that
Bengal's wealth—encompassing muslin, silk, and saltpeter—traveled to Cairo,
Amsterdam, and Canton, connecting the delta to global networks. Persian, Arab,
Portuguese, and Dutch merchants gathered at Bengal's ports.
Lawrence Freedman reminds us that
strategy, whether in war or business, involves seizing opportunities while
recognising limitations. Mughal rulers understood that land and sea power were
interconnected: wealth moved along rivers as much as on roads.
Beyond kings: Sailors,
merchants, and the human experience
Kings alone did not animate this
maritime world. Fishermen guided pilots through shifting channels; Muslim
merchants spread Islam to Southeast Asia; Sufi missionaries travelled on dhows
to reach distant shores. These individuals wove the Bay into a vibrant tapestry
of commerce, culture, and belief (Metcalf 2012).
Ports were cosmopolitan
microcosms: Arabic inscriptions at Chittagong, Buddhist shrines along coastal
routes, and Hindu temples dotting towns are all testaments to cultural
diversity. Sailors carried goods, stories, languages, and songs, enriching
Bengal's social fabric. In this sense, the Bay was both a stage and an actor,
shaping lives and ideas as much as it received them.
Risk, strategy, and
environmental mastery
Maritime power faced ongoing
threats. Monsoon storms could sink fleets overnight; pirates endangered trade
and lives; and conflicts between the Arakanese and Portuguese could turn
commerce into warfare. For Bengal's rulers and sailors, strategy involved living
with uncertainty, adapting to tides, winds, and human rivals (Freedman 2013).
Sharman notes that maritime
networks influence not just through fleet size but also by understanding
structural vulnerabilities in geography and political alignments (Sharman
2019). Bengal's kings demonstrated this adaptive intelligence. Their success depended
on controlling rivers, tides, and alliances—recognising that dominance was
never absolute.
Empires of the Weak: Lessons
for Bengal
Sharman's Empires of the Weak
presents early modern statecraft as navigating fragility rather than relying on
brute force. Bengal's empires demonstrate this concept centuries before
European powers arrived. By understanding rivers, tides, and coastal networks,
kings and sailors held significant influence over the Bay of Bengal.
Adaptation, diplomacy, and maritime literacy became essential parts of power.
Sharman further emphasizes that small states, by mastering local chokepoints and understanding complex regional networks, can gain strategic leverage beyond their size (Sharman 2019). Bengal's rulers did exactly this, showcasing a model of maritime statecraft that balanced risk, resilience, and opportunity.
Continuities, transitions, and
leading into Episode Four
By the 18th century, European
powers—Portuguese, Dutch, French, British—entered Bengal's waters not to
explore but to become part of established networks. However, the core
principles remained the same: navigating fragility, strategic adaptation, and
forming alliances to influence maritime power.
As rivers carried Pala monks'
manuscripts, Chola fleets' pepper, and Mughal merchants' muslin into the Bay,
so did monsoon and trade winds spread Bengal's influence outward. Episode
Four—Monsoon and trade winds: The Arab and Southeast Asian connections—will
explore these historical winds, illustrating how Bengal became a vital hub in a
maritime world stretching from the Red Sea to the South China Sea.
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